What is fascism and why is it important

The political situation in Germany is - as the federal elections have clearly shown - very strongly characterized by radical positions and a questioning of our political system as a whole. In Germany, we are in the company of many other countries. Such a position of reviewing and possibly adapting political systems is always a touchstone for the system and societies alike. The key question is often - both objectively and in terms of people's needs - whether the foundations of the political or economic system are changed or abolished. Politically interested people like to discuss such fundamental changes and often do so without this necessarily having consequences. But if the social discourse as a whole questions the common basic values, then the community is facing profound interventions. We all hope that such changes in direction should not only be well considered and thought through, but also more committed to sustainability than to current fashions. For example, the German Basic Law has for a long time carried us through a wide range of political phases, conflicts and fashions with its foresight and united us. We must have expectations of any fundamental change in our orientation as a society (we are not talking about everyday political decisions here) that are at least as high as those that the German Basic Law fulfills today; if we want to improve, even higher ones.

Am Aussehen kann man sie nicht erkennen

One way to improve the quality of discourses, agreement processes, disputes and changes, plans and decisions is to use factual information. Although the term "factual information" in the area of ​​politics and social phenomena seems difficult to define in everyday language, the social sciences offer us many options for integrating these uncertainties (e.g. through different sources, different interpretations, ideological thinking, etc.). This creates balanced factual information that we can then incorporate into our thinking and discussions.

Not just since the election, but for many years now, we have been confronted with old and new fascist approaches and goals in the current discourse about our basic values. Since fascism is not an opinion according to our laws, but an injustice (and certain statements are also a criminal offense), it is important that these approaches are quickly recognized and radically combated in our social discourse. The great advantage of our political system is that requests for change do not have to come from outside the system, but that democracy gives everyone the opportunity to use its flexibility and further develop our shared values ​​- just not by abolishing this flexibility (=democracy).

So let's explore together what fascism is and how it can be recognized.

There are different definitions of fascism, which vary depending on the disciplinary approach. The most important political, sociological, literary and scientific definitions can be summarized as follows:

1. Political definitions

   1. Giovanni Gentile (philosopher, mastermind of Italian fascism):

      Fascism is an authoritarian, nationalist movement that sees the state as the highest form of unity. The individual exists only in his relationship to the state.

      Source: Gentile, "The Doctrine of Fascism" (1932, with Benito Mussolini).

   2. Umberto Eco (writer and philosopher):

      Eco describes fascism as "primal fascism" with characteristics such as cult of tradition, rejection of modernism, anti-intellectualism, militarism, elitism and the demonization of deviants.

      Source: Umberto Eco, "The Eternal Fascism" (1995).

   
   

2. Sociological definitions

   1. Robert O. Paxton (historian):

      Fascism is a form of political behavior characterized by an obsessive preoccupation with the decay of a community and an uncompromising glorification of unity, strength and purity.

      Source: Paxton, "The Anatomy of Fascism" (2004).

   2. Roger Griffin (historian):

      Fascism is a political ideology whose core lies in a populist ultra-nationalism aimed at national rebirth.

      Source: Griffin, "The Nature of Fascism" (1991).

   
   

3. Scientific definitions

   1. Stanley G. Payne (historian):

      Fascism combines ideological elements such as anti-liberalism, anti-communism, anti-democracy, revolutionary nationalism, and a cult of the leader based on mobilization and violence.

      Source: Payne, "A History of Fascism, 1914–1945" (1995).

   2. Hannah Arendt (philosopher):

      Fascism is a totalitarian movement that uses mass mobilization and propaganda to create a homogeneous society under authoritarian rule.

      Source: Arendt, "Elements and Origins of Totalitarianism" (1951).

   
   

4. Literary perspectives

   1. George Orwell (writer):

      Orwell describes fascism as an imprecise term that is often used synonymously with oppression and authoritarian behavior without being clearly defined. Nevertheless, for him the cult of the leader is at the center.

      Source: Orwell, "What is Fascism?" (1944).

   2. Literary works (e.g. Elio Vittorini):

      In novels and poems, fascism is often portrayed as a dystopian ideology that suppresses individual freedom and enforces a collective identity.

Common features of the definitions:

1. Authoritarianism: rejection of democracy, strong centralization of power.

2. Nationalism: overemphasis on the nation as the highest identity.

3. Violence and control: use of repression against dissenters.

4. Cult of the leader: a single leader symbolizes the unity and strength of the movement.

5. Ideological core: belief in a national rebirth and rejection of individualism.

Let's take a closer look at an example of these definitions together. Let's take Umberto Eco's "eternal fascism" because his essay on this topic seems manageable yet comprehensive, thoughtful yet practically applicable. First, a brief explanation of his thoughts

In his essay "The Eternal Fascism" (1995), Umberto Eco describes 14 basic characteristics that characterize the so-called "ur-fascism" or "eternal fascism". These characteristics are not a strict definition, but flexible properties that can appear in different combinations. They provide a tool for recognizing authoritarian tendencies in political movements. The characteristics are as follows:

1. Cult of tradition | Fascist ideologies invoke a mythical past that serves as the basis for the present and future. They reject progress and consider tradition to be irrefutable.

2. Rejection of modernity | Fascism sees modernity, especially the Enlightenment and its values, as a source of moral decay and a threat to society. Progress and rationality are rejected.

3. Cult of action for the sake of action | Action is viewed as an end in itself. Reflection and intellectual discussions are seen as weakness, while impulsive action is seen as a virtue.

4. Rejection of criticism | Fascist systems reject any form of critical thinking, as it is seen as subversive and unpatriotic. Faith is placed above reason.

5. Fear of difference | Fascism propagates a homogeneous society and sees differences (cultural, ethnic, sexual or social) as a threat to the unity of the nation.

6. Appeal to frustration | Fascist movements often target people who feel disadvantaged by society. They offer simple solutions to complex problems and stir up resentment.

7. Nationalism and xenophobia | Fascism sees its own nation as superior and expresses itself in hostility towards strangers, migrants and minorities.

8. Enemy image and conspiracy | A central element of fascism is the construction of a common enemy who is blamed for all problems. Conspiracy theories are a means of reinforcing this narrative.

9. Life as a constant struggle | Life is seen as a constant struggle that requires strength, courage and sacrifice. Peace and diplomacy are seen as weakness.

10. Contempt for the weak | Fascism glorifies strength, success and power, while weakness and failure are despised. This is often reflected in the exclusion of minorities and the disabled.

11. Cult of the leader | A strong and charismatic leader is seen as the embodiment of the nation. He is portrayed as above reproach and his decisions are seen as infallible.

12. Cult of masculinity | Fascism glorifies traditional notions of masculinity, such as courage, strength and discipline, while women are often reduced to their roles as bearers and servants.

13. Selective populism | Fascist systems propagate a "popular will" that is directly represented by the leader. In reality, however, the people are manipulated and pluralism of opinion is excluded.

14. Language of news and propaganda | Fascism uses simplified and emotional language. Repetitions, catchphrases and slogans are intended to mobilize the masses and prevent critical thinking.

Eco emphasizes that not all 14 points have to occur at the same time in order to describe a movement as fascist. "Ur-Fascism" remains flexible and can adapt to different contexts. However, its characteristics help to recognize authoritarian and dangerous ideologies at an early stage.

It is important to know these or other definitions in order to recognize harmful approaches in the discussion about our values ​​(in the family to society as a whole) in ourselves and others. Only then can we keep our joint efforts healthy and contribute to ultimately reaching a result that is sustainable for society as a whole. Fascist approaches are not only no help in this regard, but are the fungal spore that poisons every socially negotiated compromise from the outset and thus deprives it of any sustainability.